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a–e | f–j | k–o | p–t | u–z acanthus: a broad-leafed plant with many spikes, used as a decorative pattern on Corinthian capitals and reliefs ‡ acerra: incense box used in sacrifices ° acrolithic: a statue with the head (and sometimes hands and feet) made of stone, while the body is of some other material ‡ acroterium, [pl. acroteria]: ornaments at the apex of the gable and at the corners of the roof of a temple ‡ adlocutio: a formal speech, often given by the emperor to his troops. Sometimes used for the traditional stance, with one arm raised, associated with such a speech ‡ adulterium: adultery; made a criminal offense in 18 BCE by Augustus with the Lex Julia de adulteris coercendis † adventus: an arrival, especially of an emperor or general into Rome ° aedicula: a small pedimented pavilion forming part of a façade. Often used for the backdrop of theatres or for framing figures on sarcophagi ‡ aedilis: an aedile, one of a group of elected officials at Rome who had charge of the streets, traffic, markets and public games ° aggregate: the inert material, usually sand, gravel, or rubble, that is bound together with pozzolana to form concrete ‡ ala, [pl. alae]: in a Roman house, wings extending to right and left at the far end of the traditional atrium, in front of the tablinum ° alabastrum: a pear-shaped perfume casket ° alimenta: distributions of food among the poor ° alimentaria: the custom of distributing food to the populace, often at the personal expense of the emperor ‡ anastole: the hair standing up over the center of the forehead; characteristic hairstyle of Alexander the Great ° apotheosis: the occasion when someone (often an emperor) becomes a god or goddess after death. Typically represented by the person being carried up to heaven ‡ apparitores: attendants on magistrates ° apse: a semicircular space, usually at the end of a hall or basilica ‡ ara, [pl. aeae]: altar; the word is often used for the ceremonial enclosure as well as the sacrificial stone itself ‡ architrave: the horizontal architectural element above the columns in a classical temple ‡ argentarius, [pl. argentarii]: a moneychanger, banker ° armarium, [pl. armaria]: a cupboard ° Arx: a citadel; at Rome the Arx was thc fortified part of the Capitoline Hill ‡ atmospheric perspective: a device for creating the illusion of distance by making faraway objects appear hazier than objects in the foreground ‡ atrium: the central room of a traditional Roman house ‡ attic: the upper portion of a triumphal arch ‡ auctoritas: influence, authority: an important virtue for Romans pursuing a public career † augur: an augur, soothsayer, seer; member of a special college at Rome ° Augustus: a title for the emperor meaning "revered." The name was originally taken by Octavian but was used subsequently for all reigning emperors ‡ aula regia, [pl. aulae regiae]: audience hall ° aurea aetas: golden age ° aureus [pl. aurei]: the name for the standard Roman gold coin. It was about 3/4 inch (2 cm) in diameter ‡ balteus [pl. baltei]: a girdle or belt serving to hold a weapon ° barbarians: people who were from foreign lands, and by implication considered less civilized than the Romans ‡ Baroque: a term transferred from 17th-century art, suggesting ornamental enrichment and elaboration for its own sake, especially in architectural façades ‡ basilica: the conventional name for halls built to accommodate a crowd of people for civic and administrative purposes ‡ bisellium, [pl. bisellia]: a seat of honor large enough to accommodate two distinguished persons ° bozzetto: a preliminary model ° bucchero: fine black polished pottery made by the Etruscans, especially in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE ‡ bucranium, [pl. bucrania]: sculpted likeness of a bovine skull adorned with garlands †; a circular boss of metal worn suspended from the neck by children, especially by sons of the nobility and the wealthy ° bustuarius, [pl. bustarii]: a gladiator who fought at a funeral pyre in honor of the dead ° Caesar [pl. Caesares]: title used by the imperial family. Derived from Julius Caesar, it was first a family name, and eventually came to designate a son or junior colleague destined for the imperial throne ‡ calceii patricii: high shoes worn by priests ° caldarium, [pl. caldaria]: the hot room of a Roman bath ‡ camillus, [pl. camillii]: boy employed in the religious rites and ceremonies of the Romans ° canopic urn: an Etruscan container for the ashes of the dead. The lid often takes the form of a human head, and sometimes schematic features of the human figure are added to the body of the jar ‡ capital: the upper, spreading element of a column, forming a transition between the vertical shaft and the horizontal elements of the architrave ‡ capite velato: with veiled head ° capitolium: the main temple for civic worship in Roman colonies. Named for the deities (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva) who were venerated on the Capitol in Rome ‡ cardo: the name for a north-south street in the rectangular grid system of Roman town planning. Often used loosely for the principal north-south street (see decumanus) ‡ carpentum: four-wheeled cart † caryatid: a female figure used as a support, most commonly for columns or mirror handles ‡ castrum: a Roman military or fortified camp rectangular in plan with two main streets intersecting at the center ° cathedra: a chair, usually with a back ° cavea, -ae: the rounded hollow space in a theater where the seats were placed ‡ cella, -ae: an enclosed room of a temple, usually housing the cult statue ‡ chiaroscuro: the use of light and shadows to create the illusion of shape and volume in painting or sculpture ‡ chimaera, -ae: a mythical beast in the form of a fire-breathing lion, with the head of a goat (usually growing from its back) and the head of a snake (usually shown at the tip of the tail) ‡ chiton: garment, worn by either children or women, fastened with pins at the shoulders and girdled at the waist † cingulum: a girdle or swordbelt ° cista mystica: cylindrical basket used in mystery cults † cithara: an ancient Greek stringed instrument similar to but larger than the lyre ° clementia: mercy, clemency ° cliens: client; one who owes allegiance to a patronus to whom she/he is usually somehow indebted † clipeus virtutis: shield of bravery or valor ° coffers: the box-like shapes in the ceilings of architectural monuments and triumphal arches. Used to reduce the mass of the vaulting ‡ cognomen: the third name of a Roman citizen following the name of the gens (family) ° collegium, [pl. collegia]: a group of persons united in an office or for any common purpose ° colonnade: a row of columns, either surrounding a temple or standing as an independent architectural element ‡ columbarium. [pl. columbaria]: a communal tomb with many niches to contain ash urns, named for its similarity to a bird house with many nesting boxes ‡ coma in gradus formata: hair arranged in terraces; used by Suetonius to describe one of Nero's hairstyles ° concordia, [pl. concordiae]: agreement, union, harmony, concord ° congiarium, [pl. congiarii]: a distribution of money to the people ° conlibertus, [pl. conlibertii]: a fellow-freedman ° consuls: the two chief administrators of the Roman state during the Republican period. They were elected annually. The office continued under the empire but became more of a titular post ‡ contabulatio, [pl. contabulationes]: flat drapery fold across the chest of the Roman toga ° contubernium: unofficial marriage between a slave and a slave or between a slave and a free person † corona civica, [pl. coronae civicae]: civic crown consisting of oak leaves °; awarded for military prowess † cupola: another word for dome ‡ curia: senate house † Cybele: goddess whose worship was brought to Rome from Asia Minor during the Second Punic War (ca. 208 BCE); also called Magna Mater † Dacia: a nation whose homeland lay on the north side of the lower Danube, and was roughly equivalent to modern Rumania. They were the enemy in the reliefs on Trajan's Column ‡ dado: part of a wall, sometimes up to waist height, often decorated with designs imitating different kinds of stone ‡ damnatio memoriae: practice whereby the memory of an individual was abolished by decree of the Senate † decennalia: a festival celebrated with games every ten years by the Roman emperors; anniversary of the tenth year of rule ° decumanus: an east-west street in the grid layout of Roman towns. Often used of the decumanus maximus, or principal east-west thoroughfare (see cardo) ‡ decursio, [pl. decursiones]: ritual circling of the funerary pyre ° denarius, [pl. denarii]: a Roman silver coin, originally equivalent to ten asses but afterward to eighteen ° designator [pl. designatores]: (dissignator) an undertaker who directed funeral processions ° dexiosis: a handshake ° dextrarum iunctio: joining of the right hands; symbolizes a bond between two parties, frequently used in depictions of marriage † dictator: a person with sweeping powers appointed in a time of crisis to restore the government or defend the state. The word does not carry the ugliness of modern connotations ‡ Diva, -us: divine, a title conferred on some members of the imperial family † divi filius: son of a god ° dominus et deus: lord and god ° dominus factionis: an owner of a circus faction ° domus: a single family townhouse, as opposed to a villa, which is a country house ‡ dorsuale, [pl. dorsualia]: broad band wrapped around the body of an animal victim ° duovir (or duumvir); one of a pair of magistrates, one of a commission of two ° dyarchy: rule by two ° emancipatio: practice whereby a paterfamilias frees his children from his absolute control † emblema: the central motif in a mosaic: often set off by a frame, and better made than the background ‡ encaustic: a painting technique where heated wax is used as a coloring and sealing medium ‡ engaged columns: half-columns projecting from a wall to give the appearance of a closed colonnade ‡ entablature: the upper architectural elements of a temple, above the columns ‡ equites: the knights, a distinct order in the Roman commonwealth, between the senate and the plebs ° eros [pl. erotes]: cupid ° exedra [pl. exedrae]: a large curving space set back in a wall or colonnade. Generally uncovered and bigger than an apse ‡ exomis: a dress that had only a sleeve for the left arm, leaving the right arm with the shoulder and part of the breast free ° ex testamento: from the will of ° extispicium: an inspection of entrails ° back to top fasces: bundle of sticks with an ax projecting, carried by lictors before the chief Roman magistrates ° fasti consulares: a list of consuls ° fasti triumphales: a list of triumphant generals ° fecunditas: fecundity, fertility † felicitas saeculi: a fortunate age ° ferculum: litter, bier, platform ° fibula: an ornamental brooch rather like a safety pin ‡ filius: son ° flamen: priest responsible for a cult of a particular god in Rome; the Collegium Pontificum comprised of a total of fifteen flamines ° fluting: vertical grooves or channels on the columns. Doric fluting is shallow and meets at a sharp edge. Ionic and Corinthian fluting has a flat edge between the channels ‡ foreshortening: an illusionistic device that reduces the length of objects seen obliquely, in order to suggest depth in an economical way on a flat surface ‡ fortuna: chance, good fortune, also tyche † fortuna muliebris: women's fortune † freedman: an emancipated slave. Freed slaves frequently became wealthy and important figures during the period of the Roman empire ‡ frieze: the horizontal space above the main crossbeam in a classical temple, usually decorated with sculpted figures or floral ornament. Often used for any decoration arranged in a horizontal band ‡ frigidarium [pl. frigidaria]: cold room of a Roman bath ° fundator quietis: a founder of peace ° fury: one of a group of female personifications of vengeance who punished criminals, especially murderers who killed their own kin ‡ galli: priests of Cybele ° genetrix: creator, mother; an epithet of Venus, to whom a special temple was dedicated and whose iconography was frequently appropriated by Roman empresses † genius, [pl. genii]: the guardian spirit of a man or place ° gens, [pl. gentes]: a clan, a number of families connected by a common descent, and the use of the same gentile name ° grotteschi: painted figures (especially imaginary creatures) copied or adapted in the Renaissance from the walls of the ancient buildings in Rome that were underground "grottoes" at the time ‡ groundline: the pictorial representation of the surface on which figures stand ‡ haruspex: a soothsayer, one who foretold the future from the inspection of entrails ° hasta: a spear ° Hellenistic: refers to the period in Greek art and politics between the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE) and establishment of Roman government in Greece and Asia Minor during the first century BCE ‡ hierothesion, ia: sacred last resting place ° hilaritas: cheerfulness, joyousness † hippodrome: the Greek equivalent of a track for chariot racing. In Latin, it is called a circus ‡ imago clipeata [pl. imagines clipeatae]: portrait(s) relief in the form of a sculpted shield † impasto: thick greyish pottery made by many Iron Age communities in Italy ‡ imperator: a commander, leader, the commander in chief of an army ° imperium: the highest political power, authority ° impluvium: a small pool that catches the rain coming through an opening in the roof in the middle of the atrium of a Roman house ‡ indigenous: native to the geographical area, and not imported ‡ in hoc panario: in this breadbasket ° institutio alimentaria: system of distribution of food among the poor ° insula: a multiple dwelling in a Roman town, usually encompassing a whole block. Derived from the Latin word for "island" ‡ Iron Age: the period between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE, when the use of iron was becoming more widespread ‡ juno: guardian spirit of Roman females (cf. genius); Juno: the Roman goddess of marriage and childbirth, and the wife of Jupiter † back to top kline: bed, couch; funeral couch ° kouros: a standard sixth century BCE Greek statue type of a standing male, usually shown nude ‡ lar, [pl. lares]: tutelary household deities among the Romans ° Latium: the area to the south and east of Rome. Home of the Latin tribes ‡ laudatio: funeral oration ° lenocinium: practice of pimping; a criminal charge brought against men who tolerated adulterous affairs of their wives † lenos: sarcophagus in the shape of a bathtub ° Lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis: legislation sponsored in 18 BCE by Augustus that defined adultery as a criminal offense † Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus: legislation sponsored in 18 BCE by Augustus that regulated marriage † Lex Papia Poppaea: legislation sponsored by Augustus in 9 that moderated the Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus † Lex Voconia: legislation passed in 169 BCE that prohibited men from naming women as heirs to their estate † liberalitas: courtesy, generosity; a grant ° liberator urbis: liberator of the city ° libertina, -us (also liberta, -us): freedmen; men or women who were formerly slaves and, as such, subject to specific legal restrictions † lictor: armed bodyguard who accompanied important officials in Rome † liknon: winnowing basket that held the phallus in the cult of Dionysus ° limus: an apron trimmed with purple, worn by a priest when offering sacrifice ° lituus: the curved staff or wand of an augur ° lustratio: a purification by sacrifice ° lustrum: an expiatory sacrifice, especially that offered every five years by the censors at the close of the census on behalf of the Roman people, at which an ox, sheep, and pig (suovetaurilia) were sacrificed ° macellum: marketplace † Maenad: a female follower of Dionysus, often seen holding cymbals or castanets in ecstatic dances ‡ maiskos: a small shrine ° malleus: a hammer, mallet, especially the ax used for slaying animals offered in sacrifice ° manus: absolute power of a husband over his wife and property † mappa: a ceremonial cloth used as a starting flag ‡ material culture: the term used to encompass the whole range of objects made and used by a particular group of people ‡ Mater Patriae: mother of her country; and honorific title bestowed on some Roman empresses (cf. Pater Patriae) † medicus: a physician ° municipium: a town whose inhabitants enjoyed Roman citizenship, although they usually followed their own laws ‡ negotiantes: businessmen ° neoplatonism: a doctrine from the revival of interest in the philosophy of Plato in the third century CE ‡ Nereid: one of the daughters of Nereus. Also a general term for sea nymphs ‡ nobiles: distinguished, of noble birth; especially belonging to a family that had held curule magistracies ° nobilissima femina: the noblest woman; a title granted to some of the Roman empresses ° nobilitas: noble birth, nobility; the aristocrats, the nobility ° nodus [pl. nodi]: a roll of hair; a hairstyle in which the hair is arrange in a roll over the forehead ° nomen: the gentile or family name of a Roman ° nymphaeum: a term used for a formal fountain building in Roman imperial architecture ‡ obelisk: a tapering pillar of square section, with a pointed top, set up by the ancient Egyptians, but often carried off for re-use by the Romans ‡ oculus: the round opening in a vault to let in light. Derived from the Latin word for "eye" ‡ oecus: dining room in a Roman house ° opus incertum: a masonry technique using small stones of irregular size and shape to retain the concrete core of a wall ‡ opus quadratum: ashlar masonry of large squared stones laid in horizontal courses ° oratio: a speech ° orchestra: the flat, semicircular space in front of the stage within a theater ‡ back to top palaestra: the Greek and Latin word for wrestling ground; a space for field events ‡ paludamentum: a military cloak, a soldier's cloak, especially a general's cloak ° papyrus: a reed that grown in the Nile delta. The stalk is used for making a material like paper that is also known as papyrus. Writings on this material are called papyri ‡ parapetasma: a curtain ° parazonium: a short sword in a scabbard ° Parthinas: a nation that overran much of the area to the east of the River Euphrates in the second century BCE, and was a constant threat to the eastern Roman provinces ‡ pater: father ° patera: a shallow dish or saucer from which a libation was poured ° paterfamilias: male head of the household † Pater Patriae: father of one's country; an honorific title bestowed on some Roman emperors (cf. Mater Patriae) † patria potestas: absolute power of the paterfamilias over members of his household † patricians: citizens who were members of noble families ‡ patricius: patrician, noble; the Roman patricians or nobility ° patronus: patron; one to whom allegiance is owed by a cliens † pax: peace † penates: Latin deities of the household and family ° peplos: garment worn by women, which was pinned at the shoulder † peristyle: the rectangular courtyard or garden of a Greek or Roman house ‡ personification: the process of giving human shape to abstract ideas such as Justice, or to rivers and places like the Danube or Africa ‡ pharos: a lighthouse ° pietas: dutifulness, dutiful conduct toward the gods, one's country, one's relatives ° pistor: a miller, a baker ° pius: acting dutifully toward the gods, one's country, one's relatives ° plebs: the plebians, the common people, the lower orders ° pomerium: a space left free from buildings on each side of the walls of a town, bounded by stones ° pompa triumphalis [pl. pompae]: a triumphal procession ° pontifex maximus: chief priest of the Roman state religion ° popa, [pl. popae]: a junior priest or temple servant who slew the animal victims ° porphyry: a dense red volcanic stone quarried in Egypt. The Romans made general use of it for architectural decoration, but it was reserved by the imperial family for their own statuary and sarcophagi ‡ portico: a porch, or a line of columns in a colonnade ‡ porticus: building comprised of a series of archways, often housing works of art † pozzolana: volcanic earth from the area of Pozzuoli, near Naples, which sets hard like cement after it is mixed with water. The active ingredient in Roman concrete ‡ praefectus urbi: governor of the city (Rome) ° praenomen: the first name, usually that standing before the gentile name ° praetor: a leader, chief; one of the group of Roman magistrates who helped the consuls by administering justice and by commanding armies ° princeps [pl. princepes]: first, foremost; title used by Augustus and by all later emperors. The term, "Principate" derived from this title, is used to describe the regime immediately following the Republic † princeps iuventutis [pl. princepes]: a leader among the youth ° processus consularis [pl. processi]: consular procession ° proconsul: a proconsul, one who serves as a consul in command of an army, or as a governor or a province ° profectio: a departure, especially of an emperor or general from Rome ° pronaos: the Greek word for the front porch of a temple ‡ propraetor: a Roman, who, after having been praetor at Rome, was sent abroad as governor to a province or given a military command ° province: technically the area of responsibility of a magistrate, but usually equated with a particular geographical region ‡ pudicitia: modesty, chastity, feminine virtue ° puella Faustinae [pl. puellae Faustinianae]: a girl who benefited from a welfare program set up by Antonius Pius in honor of his wife, Faustina the Elder † pylons: important gateways, or the square pillars that support an arch ‡ quaestor: financial official of the Roman Republic; first office sought by men pursuing a career in poiltics † quinquennalia: a festival celebrated at the end of every four years. Although instituted in honor of Julius Caesar and Augustus, usually associated with Nero and also called the Neronia. It consisted of musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests ° quiquennium: a period of five years ° quoins: squared stones set at the outside corners of walls made of opus incertum. The effect is to strengthen the ends and make a neater line ‡ redemptor: a contractor ° register: a horizontal division of a pictorial area; like a zone or band ‡ Res Gestae: deeds accomplished; title of an official record of Augustus's accomplishments, benefactions, and building projects † res publica: republic; regime of consuls, praetors, and other elected officials; replaced by the Prinipate † rex datus: the assigned king ° rinceau: a sinuous and branching scroll made of a plant stem and leaves ‡ Roman foot: this was slightly shorter than the modern standard, and measured about 11 1/2 inches (29.5 cm) ‡ rostra: the prows of captured ships set up in the Roman Forum and used as a pulpit for public speeches ‡ sacerdos Vestae [pl. sacerdotes Vestae]: a priest of Vesta ° sacerna: a sacrificial ax ° sacrosanctitas: absolute sacredness or inviolability † saeculum aureum: golden age ° sarcophagus: a container to hold a dead body. Usually made of stone, but can also be of terracotta or metal ‡ scaenae frons: the permanent stage façade in a Roman theatre ° schola: a school or place where learned disputations were carried on ° sella castrensis: a chair in a military camp ° sella curulis: a magistrate's seat ° sestertius: originally a small silver coin worth one quarter of a denarius. In imperial times a large brass piece about 1 3/8 inch (c. 3.5 cm) in diameter ‡ sevir [pl. seviri]: one of a group of six young men of senatorial birth who participated with the equestrians in a parade or transvectio in Rome; members of a college of six who were part of the Augustales, a priesthood in the municipalities ° signifer, [pl. signiferi]: a standard bearer ° signum, [pl. signi]: a standard ° similitudo: likeness, resemblance ° simpulum: a ladle ° sine manibus: marriage that does not involve the custom of manus † sinus [pl. sini]: the hinging fold of a Roman toga ° situla [pl. situlae]: a jar for water ° sodalis: a member of an association, especially a college of priests ° solidus [pl. solidi]: Roman gold coin, lighter than the aureus, and first struck under Constantine the Great ° spandrel: the triangular space between the springing and center of an arch. Usually occupied by a Victory ‡ sphragis: seal in the shape of a cross ° spolia: any booty or plunder taken from an enemy, spoils ° stola: a long outer garment, especially as worn by Roman matrons ° strigil: a curved piece of metal with a handle, used for scraping an athlete's body to move sweat and dust after exercise ‡ stucco: plaster used on walls or ceilings. Often referring specifically to three-dimensional ornament in plaster ‡ suffect consul (consul suffect): a substitute consul ° sui iuris: a Roman's independence from any legal guardian † suovetaurilia: a sacrifice of a pig, a sheep, and a bull ° tabula census: the census register ° tepidarium: the warm room of a Roman bath ‡ terracotta: baked clay, usually with reference to roof tiles or sculpture ‡ tessera [pl. tesserae]: a squarish piece of stone or glass used to create a mosaic ‡ testudo: literally a tortoise. The name given to an army formation where the Roman attacking a town put their shields together over their heads for protection against the defenders on the walls ‡ tetrapylon: a four-way arch, usually triumphal or commemorative, found at a crossroads ‡ tertrachs: four rulers of the late Roman empire, each with a particular sphere of influence in east or west. Two were subordinate, but were picked for succession to the higher positions ‡ therma [pl. thermae]: a bath ° thiasos: a religious procession ° thyrsus: a wand, twined around with ivy and vine leaves, carried by Dionysus and his attendants ° toga picta [pl. togae pictae]: a toga worn by generals in triumphs ° toga praetexta: a toga with a broad purple stripe worn by magistrates and freeborn children ° togatus: wearing the toga, that is as a Roman citizen, as a opposed to a foreigner or soldier ° toga virilis: toga worn by young men on coming of age ° torque: a necklace made of a heavy piece of twisted gold. Worn by barbarians ‡ trabeated: an architectural term for a structure with horizontal beams set on vertical supports. Also known as post and lintel ‡ travertine: a light-colored limestone that is commonly used for building in the region around Rome ‡ tribunus [pl. tribuni]: official of the Republic who could veto legislation from the Senate † tricennalia: a festival celebrated every thirty years; a celebration of thirty years in office ° triclinium [pl. triclinia]: a dining room ‡ triton: male equivalent of Nereid, i.e., a male sea creature ‡ triumphator [pl. triumphatores]: triumphant general ° triumvir [pl. triumviri]: a triumvir, usually plural, a board or commission of three ° trophy: a victory monument composed of the armor of the defeated enemy, which was set up on the battlefield ‡ tubicen: a trumpeter ° tufa: the principal building stone of Latium and Campania, a concreted volcanic dust ° tumulus: the type of round burial mound used by the Etruscans ‡ tyche: see fortuna † Tyrrhenus: a Lydian prince, supposed first leader of the Etruscan people ‡ back to top univira: a woman who has married only one man † urceus: a jug, a pitcher ° ustrinum: base for a funeral pyre ° uxor: wife ° vaults: a barrel or tunnel vault is simple semicircular arched roof. A groin or cross vault is the intersection of two such tunnels and the configuration of the joined space ‡ verna: a slave born in the master's house ° vestal virgins: priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who were required to be unmarried and chaste ‡ vexillum, [pl. vexilla]; a standard, a flag ° vicennalia; a festival celebrated every twenty years; celebration of twenty years in office ° vicomagister [pl. vicomagistri]: a local official or magistrate; often a freedman ‡ victimarius, [pl. victimarii]: an assistant at a sacrifice who slaughtered the animal victim ° villanovans: the general name given to the Iron Age inhabitants of Italy ‡ virtus: manliness, manly and moral excellence; worth, goodness, virtue, valor, courage ° vivit: he or she lives: used in Latin epitaphs to denote that one of the honorands is still alive ° vota suscepta: a votive offering presented by a Roman general in hope of a successful military campaign ° votum [pl. vota]: a solemn promise or vow to the gods ° °Kleiner, Diana E. E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven, 1992. †Kleiner, Diana E.E. Matheson, Susan B., eds. I Claudia: Women in Ancient Rome. New Haven, 1996. ‡Ramage, Nancy H., Ramage, Andrew. Roman Art: Romulus to Constantine. New York, 1991. back to top syllabus | bibliographies | assignments | resources